Category: Features

Young Reporters Race the Clock in Indianapolis’ Keating Journalism Competition

By Andrew Danielson

It’s a simple assignment.

Go to a location. Ask a stranger to tell their story. Write it down for publication.

Easier said than done.

But for student journalists, this is the challenge that awaits them at the Keating Competition.

Sponsored and organized by the Indianapolis Press Club Foundation, the contest brings 10 student journalists to downtown Indianapolis for two days of intensive mentoring and journalistic competition. These young storytellers are given the task of finding a story to write, edit, and submit in just a few hours. A judges panel then reviews the stories, awarding cash prizes and honors to the top three winning stories.

The ten finalists of the 2026 Keating Competition. PFW student and SCO editor Andrew Danielson (last from left) was one of the participants.

The Legacy of Thomas R. Keating

But the Keating Competition would never have been created without the life and example of Indianapolis journalist, Thomas R. Keating.

“He wrote a daily column about people,” Michael Sanserino explained. “His approach was that everybody had a story, everybody was interesting.”

Sanserino is no stranger to the world of journalism. He is the executive director of the Radio, Television, and Digital News Association as well as the President of the Board of Directors of the Indianapolis Press Club Foundation.

Sanserino, who competed and won the Keating Competition as a journalism student at Indiana University, explained that the Keating Competition tries to emulate the kinds of stories Tom Keating covered when he wrote a daily column for the Indianapolis Star.

“It was his job to find people and share their story with the rest of the world,” Sanserino said.

But sharing someone’s story comes with a lot of responsibility.

“As a journalist, you have a responsibility to that person and your audience to be as accurate and truthful as possible,” Sanserino reflected quietly.

Behind the Scenes: Planning the Competition

Organizing a reporting competition doesn’t happen overnight. It takes many meetings and many hands to make light work.

Lindsey Erdody, another member of the Indianapolis Press Club Foundation board and the chair person of the Keating Competition committee, plays a big role in helping plan out each year’s competition.

Erdody explained that some of the background tasks for organizing the competition include picking the date for the event, choosing topics the students will be reporting on, and picking professional journalists to serve as mentors and judges for the stories submitted by the participants.

“We do try to make sure that the mentors and judges are different so there’s no bias in the judging,” Erdody said.

For Erdody, being a journalist was an aspiration from an early age.

“I knew I wanted to go into journalism from a pretty young age,” Erdody said.

Attending Indiana University in Bloomington as a journalism major, Erdody herself competed in the 2011 Keating Competition.

She explained that her experience at the Keating Competition was both intense and exhilarating.

“It was a little intimidating,” she said with a laugh. “As a student journalist, I hadn’t really spent much time in Indianapolis. I’m from a smaller town in Michigan.”

But it wasn’t just coming to the competition that made Erdody a little unsure of herself.

“You don’t often get the chance to just sit there and make a connection with a professional journalist and get their thoughts on your work,” she explained.

Erdody’s fellow 2011 Keating Competition participant and IU – Bloomington colleague, MaryJane Slaby, shared a similar feeling.

““It’s stressful – It’s really nerve wracking,” Slaby said with a chuckle.

Slaby’s journey to journalism paralleled Erdody’s own path, starting in journalism as a kid in high school and eventually enrolling in the journalism program at IU – Bloomington.

Like Erdody, Slaby also viewed her experience as a Keating Competition participant as thrilling.

“I remember being just excited, but also really nervous,” Slaby said.

From Application to Assignment: How the Competition Works

The journey from student journalist to Keating finalist starts several months before the competition.

Students interested in participating in the competition must submit some samples of their journalistic work to the competition’s committee.

Application opens in August, and the competition is held in October.

Sanserino explained that, generally, the committee is looking for a few characteristics in this sample work.

“Broadly, I think we’re looking for strong writers,” Sanserino explained. “We’re looking for people who can use descriptive language, who can be colorful…”

But good writing isn’t the only criteria the committee is searching for.

“I think we’re also looking for people who are curious,” he said.

Sanserino emphasized that curiosity in the journalism profession takes time and dedication.

“I think being curious requires continued practice and asking questions and letting the answers be your guide,” he said.

Sanserino explained that the committee typically receives about 40 entrants each year. Once the committee has selected 10 finalists for the competition, the finalists receive an invitation to travel to Indianapolis for the competition. The committee provides some financial assistance to the finalists to reduce travel expenses.

Screenshot of the Keating Competition website (Indianapolis Press Club Foundation)

On a Friday evening, the Keating Competition finalists meet for a combined info and networking meeting. They are connected with an assigned mentor, a professional journalist who reviews their story submissions and goes over some key tips and tricks for getting good stories. The finalists are also encouraged to network with one another, learning about the people who will be their colleagues for these two days.

The next morning, finalists receive a story assignment and are given a location where they will report.

Once at the destination, students have a couple of hours to conduct on-the-street interviews.

At an agreed-upon time, they are picked up and return to their hotel, where they have a few more hours to write, edit and submit their stories to the judges.

On Saturday evening, the competitors are treated to a wonderful dinner hosted by the Indianapolis Press Club Foundation, where a guest speaker addresses the finalists.

At the conclusion of the evening, the competition’s three winners and their stories are announced, with a group photo of all the finalists held as a final memento of the eventful weekend.

A High-Pressure, Real-World Reporting Experience

The competition’s organizers were quick to point out that the Keating Competition is a challenging experience that can be quite stressful.

“When I’m talking to my own colleagues and explaining what the Keating competition is, they’re like, ‘Wow, that’s really stressful,’” Slaby said with a laugh. ““But I also think it just gives you such a confidence boost to say hey, this is a thing I can do.”

Sanserino agreed.

“Reporting and writing a story from scratch in just a few hours is a skill that is developed over time,” he said.

But that’s just the point of the competition – to simulate what the real world of journalism can be like.

“You know, pressure, discomfort, you’re gonna experience that as a journalist throughout your career,” Sanserino explained.

The Keating Competition organizers had some great advice for dealing with the stress of random, on-the-street interviews.

“The last question I always ask is, is there anything else you think I should know, or is there anything else you want to tell me?” Erdody explained.

“Kind of slow down and don’t rush through your questions,” Slaby emphasized. “Of course, get contact information as well for those follow-up questions.”

A Defining Experience for Young Journalists

Regardless of the story the student’s write or their placement in the competition, the Keating Competition is a formative experience that will help these young journalists prepare for a life-long career in storytelling.

“Win or lose, being a finalist is a really big deal,” Erdody said.  “We do get more applications than we can accept for it every year.”

Slaby agreed with that sentiment.

“I do think that Keating is one of those things where once you do it, it gives you such a confidence boost,” Slaby said.

Sanserino summarized the entire Keating experience: “I think Keating is one of those things that – it sticks with you forever,” he said. “It is an experience unlike any other.”

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Ham Radio Field Day: How Operators Prepare for Power and Cell Service Outages

By Andrew Danielson

Spring seems to be in the air, with summer knocking on the door.

For many Americans, summer is the time for taking life a little easier, going on vacation, weekends at the lake, and soaking up the warm weather and temperatures.

But for amateur radio operators, summer, particularly the month of June, brings a chance to practice their emergency communication skills in a national event called “Field Day.”

“The purpose of Field Day is to get outside and to test kind of the EmComm side of amateur radio,” Adam Warrix, KD9NRT, said using the abbreviation “emcomm” to describe emergency communications.

Warrix is a past president of the Fort Wayne Radio Club. A science teacher at Snider High School, Warrix first received his amateur radio license in 2019 after observing ham radio’s use on a field research trip he had taken to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.

Amateur radio operators, also called “ham radio operators,” are individuals licensed by the federal government to own and operate personal radio stations.  These radio stations must be operated in accordance to federal regulation, as overseen and enforced by the FCC – the Federal Communications Commission.

Screenshot of Field Day locator page from the National Association for Amateur Radio

Before they receive an amateur radio license, ham radio operators must successfully pass required knowledge examinations covering electronic theory, radio signal propagation, federal laws governing radio transmission, and related material.

Upon successful completion of these exams, hams are assigned a federally-issued callsign. In Warrix’s case, his assigned callsign was KD9NRT, although there are many other combinations of letters and numbers available and used in the amateur radio service.

As of 2026, there are approximately 734,000 licensed amateur radio operators in the United States according to licensing statistics published on the website of the ARRL – the American Radio Relay League. In Indiana, the amateur radio operator population sits at just over 15,000 individuals.

One of the core reasons that the federal government allows and encourages the existence of the amateur radio service is their ability to provide radio communications during times of local and national emergencies.

But providing emergency communications doesn’t happen overnight. It takes time and training. Field Day provides a perfect opportunity for ham radio operators to train and practice those emergency communications skills.

Local radio amateur Dr. Josh Long (callsign W9HT) explained that Field Day is all about identifying what assets are needed for a portable amateur radio station, such as what kind of antenna to use. 

Long is a young ham with plenty of experiences. A licensed amateur radio operator for 26 years, Long’s interest in radio communications was sparked by a Montgomery Ward receiver he was gifted by his parents as a child.

Now a professor of economics at Indiana Institute of Technology, Long currently serves as the director of the Central Division of the American Radio Relay League, a geographical area encompassing the states of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Indiana.

Long has personal experience using his amateur radio station to provide emergency communications.

In 2008, Fort Wayne was struck by a winter storm that included large amounts of ice. With power outages caused by ice buildup plaguing the city, the local chapter of the American Red Cross set up a temporary shelter in the Allen County War Memorial Coliseum for residents affected by the storm.

During the emergency, Long volunteered his services as a ham radio operator, helping pass general welfare messages via a portable amateur radio station he set up at the Red Cross shelter at the Coliseum.

Nationally, amateur radio has played a vital part in providing emergency communications for other parts of the county hit by severe weather.

In 2024, the American Radio Relay League posted a press release detailing the EmComm activations by ham radio operators following the aftermath of Hurricane Helene. Those efforts included providing emergency communications support to towns and residents who had lost power and cellular service due to damage to the power grid.

In 2025, the American Radio Relay League detailed efforts radio amateurs made to provide emergency communications during the Jan. wildfires that ravaged portions of California in a press release. Some of those efforts included using amateur radio stations to report on weather conditions.

In between emergency communication activations, amateur radio operators practice their communication skills and abilities by participating in training events and exercises like Field Day. Field Day gives amateurs practice in not only learning how to set up portable radio stations, but also in the skills needed to communicate a message across the country quickly.

“It [Field Day] needs to test emergency communications,” Warrix said.

Field Day has been held annually since 1933 according to the American Radio Relay League. A mixture of competition, socializing, and EmComm skill training, Field Day has a lot of features packed into one event.

Long said that Field Day covered a multitude of training aspects when it comes to setting up a portable radio station.

 “It’s not just the technological stuff, it’s the environmental stuff like bugs or weather” Long said.

Several local amateur radio clubs in and around Fort Wayne, Indiana participate in Field Day, including the Fort Wayne Radio Club. In just the past couple of years, the Fort Wayne club has held its Field Day event on the campus of Purdue Fort Wayne as well as the historic Old Fort, a recreation 1812 War-era fort in downtown Fort Wayne.

But choosing a site for Field requires careful planning.

Field Day lasts a little over 24 hours, so amateur radio participants must request permission to stay overnight for their Field Day activation. The Fort Wayne Radio Club’s activations for Field Day also take into consideration public access for visitors to the site as well as technical operating parameters needed to make the activation successful.

But Field Day is more than a chance to practice one’s communication skills in a simulated emergency. It’s a chance for ham radio operators to socialize with one another and build community. 

One local amateur radio operator, Bill Rodgers (callsign K3HZP), has participated in Field Day since he was first licensed in 1959.

“We just set up in the field and operated it,” Rodgers recalled, talking about his first Field Day event over 60 years ago. “I remember going through the barbed wire fence to get to the field.”

That was when Rodgers was growing up in Pennsylvania. A retired electrical engineer with his doctorate in electrical engineering from Ohio State University, Rodgers continues to enjoy participating in Field Day, most recently with the Whitley County Amateur Radio Club.

Rodgers’ experiences are the very core of Field Day – setting up a radio station and joining one’s friends and acquaintances to test out radio communication skills and gear.

The reality is that emergencies don’t come for the asking (or the refusal). They strike at one’s home, community, and country, whether that happens in the height of summer vacation or the middle of the freezing winter.

While many Americans enjoy all that summer has to offer, ham radio operators will be busy at Field Day training and preparing, ready to help fill the communication void should an emergency happen.

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Taking Flight: Allen County, Indiana’s Aviation History

By Andrew Danielson

Southwest of downtown Fort Wayne, the thunderous roar of jet engines pulses through the air at Fort Wayne International Airport. Passengers concentrate on gate departure and arrival times as they hurry through the long corridors of the travel edifice. A voice announces baggage claim details over the PA.

But Fort Wayne International isn’t the only airport in the city.

Across town, located off of West Ludwig Road, the buzz of a small single-propeller plane cuts through the air, sounding like an enormous dragonfly. Suddenly, a small white speck hurtles down a runway, sailing into the air in a graceful arc. Flight operations are in full swing on this crisp, clear day at Smith Field Airport, a small airport on the north side of Fort Wayne.

As I stood and watched that small airplane begin its flight into the wild blue yonder, I realized that I was seeing almost 100 years of aviation history. For this airport is the birthplace of commercial aviation in the Summit City.

Historic Hangar built in 1930

Smith Field: The Origins of Fort Wayne Aviation

Smith Field first opened as the Paul Baer Municipal Airport in June of 1925, according to the History of Fort Wayne & Allen County, Volume 1 (History of Fort Wayne).

The History of Fort Wayne article on aviation detailed how Smith Field was named after the first American ace (a pilot who shoots down at least five enemy aircraft) Paul Frank Baer. Baer had served as a pilot during World War 1, first in the French Foreign Legion. When the United States joined the war in 1917, Baer became part of the US military as a pilot.

Following the war, Baer was a hero of his hometown, the Summit City. It was only fitting that Fort Wayne’s first official airport should be named after this American hero.

However, that all changed in World War II.

A documentary by PBS Fort Wayne explained that in 1940, the Army Air Corps (the forerunner of the US Air Force) was building air fields across the country.

For Fort Wayne, the choice came down to either converting Baer Field (as Smith Field was then called) to an army air corps base, or building a brand new airport for the army.

The fear was that if Baer Field became primarily a military airfield, Fort Wayne could lose its bustling commercial air traffic. Baer Field was doing a roaring business, and Fort Wayne didn’t want to lose this valuable asset to the city’s economy and quality of life.

The final decision? Build a brand new air field on the southwest side of Fort Wayne.

At the time of its completion in 1941, the new air field cost $10 million according to the Fort Wayne Airport Authority’s website.

But the new airfield needed a name.

As explained in the History of Fort Wayne, the army’s tradition was to name these kinds of military installations after military aviators.

Fort Wayne residents, on the other hand, preferred to name the new airfield either after the Revolutionary War hero General “Mad” Anthony Wayne or the aviation pioneer and Fort Wayne native Art Smith.

In a compromise, it was decided to rename Baer Field in honor of Art Smith, while the new airport took on the name of Baer Field.

The decision was appropriate, as it honored two of Fort Wayne’s aviation heroes, Paul Baer and Art Smith.

Art Smith: Fort Wayne’s Aviation Pioneer

Art Smith was a rock star of the early aviation world.

The History of Fort Wayne recounts that Art Smith was the first American pilot invited to Japan. Smith had received an invitation extended by the Emperor of Japan to come put on exhibitions of flying.

In the course of his career, which included being a stunt pilot, military pilot instructor, and air mail pilot, Smith amassed an enviable number of awards and a network of famous friends.

The National Air and Space Museum records that Art Smith, known as the “Bird Boy” of Fort Wayne, received a tremendous outpouring of tributes upon his untimely death in an airplane crash in 1926. Tributes came from the giants of aviation, including Orville Wright, the first human to ever fly an airplane. Famed pilot Charles Lindbergh also paid homage, circling the city of Fort Wayne three times in honor of Smith’s legacy.

Today, a monument to Art Smith, at a height of nearly 40 feet, stands in Memorial Park in downtown Fort Wayne on the same location in which Art Smith first took off in his homemade airplanes.

Wartime Innovation at Smith Field

Perhaps one of the most intriguing elements of Smith Field’s history is the fact that it served as a top-secret military installation in addition to its commercial activities during World War II.

According to the History of Fort Wayne, the US military built and designed what is the predecessor to today’s guided missiles or weaponized drones, the TDR-1 Assault Drone. A twin-engine aircraft that could carry explosives and be guided by radio control via an early form of television, the TDR-1 was flown to Smith Field, electronics installed in the cockpit, and then shipped to the military via a rail line that ran alongside the airport.

TDR-1 missiles were unmanned, being remotely piloted. They saw action for a limited period of the war, being deployed against the Japanese in the Pacific Theatre. Eventually, the project was ended by the military for a variety of reasons.

Today, only one example of a TDR-1 assault drone exists in the world according to the History of Fort Wayne. That example is currently on display in Pensacola, Florida at the U.S. Naval Air Museum.

Historic Hangars and Rare Architecture

But Smith Field is not known for just its wartime efforts.

The airport actually hosts two historically significant architectural elements, both hangers.

Hangar 2, with its three large doors and spacious interior, was unusual at the time of its construction in 1930 as mentioned in the PBS Fort Wayne documentary. Its size was enough to accommodate the large passenger aircraft of the time, such as the Douglas DC-3, which could carry about 20 passengers.

But perhaps the most unusual and rare historic artifact at Smith Field is its Carousel Hangar.

The National Park Service describes the Carousel Hangar at Smith Field as, “…the only example of Clark W. Smith’s patented design ever built.”

The outside of the Carousel Hangar

Smith’s design was to build a rounder hanger that looks very similar to a grain silo. A door in the side can be rolled back, revealing the interior of the hangar and the carousel network.

The network itself consists of a series of long, metal tracks, sticking out of a central, rotating hub like spokes in a wheel. There are enough tracks to support up to four small planes.  

Scott Noble, a local private pilot who stores his small plane in this Carousel Hangar, explained the basic function of the hangar design.

He said that the carousel network can be rotated around the central hub (just like a carousel).

“You could put your airplane in this and then they would just move it to wherever they needed to,” Noble explained.

Scott Noble’s plane inside the carousel hangar
Detail of the central hub of the carousel

Basically, if a pilot wants to get his airplane from this hangar, they simply need to open the doors of the hangar, rotate the carousel until their particular plane is pointed to the exit of the hangar, start up the engine, and taxi out on to the runway.

One of the neat features of this carousel method of plane storage is that the entire assembly can be rotated by hand. It does take a little muscle to get the carousel moving, but the entire mechanism is remarkably compact and efficient.

Smith Field’s Role in Modern Aviation

Even though Smith Field is more than a century old, it continues to be a hive of aviation activity.

With the edition of a brand new terminal building in 2013, Smith Field only seems to be increasing both activity and size.

“Look at how big this thing is,” Noble said excitedly. “I mean, this is double or triple the size of what it used to be.”

New Terminal Building

The reality is that Smith Field serves a vital role in the aviation industry of the Fort Wayne area.

According to the Fort Wayne Airport Authority’s website, Smith Field has been designated the primary reliever airport for Fort Wayne International.

But what is a reliever airport you might ask?

As explained on the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) website, a reliever airport is, “An airport designated by the Secretary of Transportation to relieve congestion at a commercial service airport and to provide more general aviation access to the overall community.”

Basically, a reliever airport takes the pressure off a main commercial airport like Fort Wayne International. For example, while Fort Wayne International handles large aircraft and numerous commercial flights for passengers, Smith Field can handle the smaller planes of general aviation and private pilot flight traffic.

This isn’t to say private pilots can’t fly in and out of Fort Wayne International – it just means that private pilots and general aviation traffic have another option available to them for takeoff, landing, refueling, and storing their personal planes.

That’s good news for everyone. Fort Wayne International can keep an efficient flow of large commercial traffic coming in and out of the city while Smith Field serves all of the smaller airplane traffic.

But Smith Field is important for more than its reliever role.

Sweet Aviation, a local business owned by the founder of Sweetwater Sound Chuck Surack, currently operates out of Smith Field. According to Sweet Aviation’s website, the business provides, “…maintenance, charter, detailing, aircraft rentals, and robust flight training.”

Inside the new terminal building

In addition to Sweet Aviation, Smith Field also hosts the Aviation Center, which is home to Ivy Tech’s Aviation Maintenance Technology program. Built in 2012 at a cost of $2.3 million, the Aviation Center is a large facility – 21,000 square feet – and it provides both hangar and classroom space for Ivy Tech’s programs.

Beyond its commercial use, Smith Field also serves as the introductory location to young people to the world of flight.

The Experimental Aircraft Association’s Young Eagles program, which sees young people taken on airplane rides by private pilots, has several upcoming rallies scheduled for the airport,  sponsored by the EAA’s Chapter 2. Through this program, young people are introduced to the excitement of soaring into the sky and the world of aviation.

A Historic Airfield with a Modern Mission

Smith Field has so much to offer the northeast Indiana community.

Listed on the National Park Service’s National Register of Historic Places, Smith Field’s historic past is firmly recognized, an indelible testament to its honored service in times of peace and war.

But Smith Field also looks forward to the future, serving as the birthplace for the flight dreams of young aviators today, and the pilots and aircraft mechanics of tomorrow.

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Outdoor Warning Sirens: Obsolete Technology or Valuable Safety Devices?

By Andrew Danielson

Tornado siren.

For those of us in the Midwest, outdoor warning sirens, commonly called “tornado sirens” are a sound that is almost familiar, frequently triggering during periods of severe weather.

But with the advent of modern technology, such as severe weather alerts sent to one’s cellphone or broadcast on television, a debate has erupted in the public sphere.

Are tornado sirens effective tools that can save lives, or are they relics of a bygone and technologically illiterate past?

Following the deadly floods in the US last year, particularly in Texas, that debate has only intensified.

Screenshot of warning sirens test results from May 6, 2026 (Allen County website)

History of a Siren

Don Sell (WB9TYJ) is a licensed amateur radio operator and a recently retired professional meteorologist that provided aviation weather reports to air traffic control at Fort Wayne International Airport. He outlined some of the background history to outdoor sirens.

According to Sell, warning sirens got their start in World War II.

At the time, the sirens were intended to warn residents of incoming air raids. With cellular technology not even invented and television just starting to enter the family home, these blaring trumpets of alarm were new technology for the era.

Following the Second World War, the sirens changed purpose from warning of incoming raid sirens to warning of impending nuclear attack. It was the Cold War, and fears of a nuclear conflagration erupting between the United States and the Soviet Union provided a perfect use for the sirens.

Sell said that tornado sirens first came to be used as severe weather alarms following the 1974 tornado outbreak.

That outbreak of severe, damaging weather was no joke.

On April 3-4 of 1974, the central and eastern portions of the United States, as well as parts of Canada, experienced one of the most severe tornado outbreaks in history according to an article on the webpage of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The federal agency stated that the outbreak of tornadoes was so deadly that over 6,000 people were injured, with 335 “direct fatalities” and financial losses extending into the billions.

The Limitations of a Tornado Siren

But how effective a tornado siren may be in America today is up for debate.

Jim Elliott (KE9IWX) is another meteorologist that worked with Sell at the Fort Wayne International Airport providing aviation weather reports. He shares Sell’s hobby of amateur radio and provided some of the pros and cons of outdoor warning systems.

Elliott said that the sirens are intended primarily to warn people who are outdoors, such as folks enjoying an outdoor sporting or music event or perhaps walking across the PFW campus between classes. For these folks, a tornado siren would be perfect since everyone is outdoors and should be capable of hearing the siren’s warning wail.

But what about people in their homes?

Elliott said that sirens have limitations when it comes to warning people who are indoors.

“Today’s homes are well insulated,” Elliott said. “Sometimes, if I’m in my house, I cannot hear those sirens.”

The Financial Cost of a Tornado Siren

There is another angle to the impact of outdoor warning sirens, and that’s the financial cost of maintaining or repairing the current outdoor tornado siren system.

Last year, Channel 21 published an article about the Allen County warning siren system, interviewing Bernie Beier.

Beier is the county emergency management and disaster preparedness director, and a military veteran with combat experience having served with the U.S. Marine Corps.

Beier estimated that Allen County would need anywhere from $700,000 to possibly $1.2 million to totally update the current warning system, according to Channel 21’s article.

Finances are a common theme in the on-going national discussion about outdoor warning sirens.

Officials in Texas, following the deadly July, 2025 flash flooding that killed over 100 people, have been mulling over the prospects of installing outdoor sirens as a last line of defense to warn communities of rising flood waters.

NBC published an article discussing the possible effectiveness of outdoor warning sirens that were used in one Texas community, Comfort, which was downstream from the harder hit areas of Texas.

Comfort had recently installed a two-siren warning system, according to the NBC report. Comfort experienced no fatalities during the flash flooding – a stark contrast to the experience of communities lying upstream in Kerr County which did not have outdoor warning sirens.

NBC did clarify in the article that outdoor warning sirens are meant for folks outdoors, not asleep in their homes. Many of the fatalities that occurred in Kerr County were people who were indoors.

 However, the lack of victims in Comfort versus those in Kerr County suggests that possibly, outdoor warning sirens may have been a contributing factory in saving peoples’ lives.

How Outdoor Warning Sirens Function

Yet another aspect of tornado sirens is the technology used versus modern cellular systems. Today’s smartphones have access to emergency alerts, and public TV and radio stations will also broadcast severe weather warnings.

“Everybody has a cell phone,” Elliott said.

That proliferation of technology should mean that the majority of a community’s population will receive automatic alerts sent directly to their personal device, negating the need for tornado sirens.

But what if cell coverage is spotty or knocked out?

“Those alerts may not get through,” according to NBC. “Particularly in rural areas with bad service or in the night when phones are off.”  

Even modern technology isn’t fool proof. There’s debate on whether or not cellular and internet service are truly reliable.

“You’re dealing with cell towers, you’re dealing with cellular networks, you’re dealing with the internet,” Sell said. “How reliable is that when a tornado comes ripping through here and tears everything up?”

Warning Siren Upkeep

Efforts are being made by volunteers and warning siren officials to keep track of how Allen County’s warning sirens are doing.

Jim Moehring (KB9WWM) has been a licensed amateur radio operator since 2000, upgrading to the top-level amateur radio license “Amateur Extra class,” in November of 2001.

Moehring said that he was intrigued by emergency communications particularly after the 9/11 terror attacks that struck the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon.

Since that time, Moehring has become heavily involved with emergency communications provided by ham radio operators, particularly through a program called ARES – the Amateur Radio Emergency Service.

According to the American Radio Relay League, ARES “…consists of licensed amateurs who have voluntarily registered their qualifications and equipment … for communications duty in the public service when disaster strikes.”

Moehring has served on a variety of local and state-level positions with ARES. He currently serves as the emergency coordinator of Allen County, as well as the district three coordinator, which includes 11 counties throughout northeast Indiana.

One of the services that the ARES team in Allen County provides is to help with the monthly tornado siren tests.

Moehring explained that the radio amateurs in the ARES team collaborate with officials in Allen County in charge of the sirens, to test the performance and ability of the outdoor warning system.

Held the first Wednesday of every month at noon (except for times of inclement weather when the public may confuse a test with an actual weather emergency), Moehring said that the monthly tests are a good way for radio amateurs to test their equipment and to give back to the community.

“It’s part of our community service to do that,” Moehring said.

He explained that he has 10-12 operators who fan out across the county and listen to their assigned siren. Once the sirens have finished their activation, operators use their portable amateur radio sets to communicate to Moehring in an organized, on-the-air gathering called a “net.”

Operators report on the status of their assigned siren, including listing how long the siren was activated, whether or not the siren rotated (not all sirens are designed to rotate), and whether the siren had good volume output.

Moehring said that the warning sirens in Allen County are turned on and off remotely by officials via a series of tones sent over radio waves. 

He explained that one of the benefits of ham radio operators participating in the test is that officials can easily get a status report of many sirens in a short period of time.

“It makes the job of making sure the sirens are working much easier,” he said, “Because it takes us about 10 minutes to get all the reports in.”

Moehring said that sirens who don’t have a volunteer listening for the siren require officials to either send out a staff person to that site or call someone living near the siren. That can take up a lot of valuable time, so the service the hams provide is welcomed by officials.

Moehring shared a similar viewpoint when it comes to the effective of sirens to warn people indoors.

“They’re not effective for anything indoors unless you happen to be right underneath one or very close to one,” he said.

Are Sirens the Answer?

It’s difficult to draw a conclusion as to the effectiveness of the sirens. The expense of the system makes it prohibitive for counties and small communities to invest in the necessary resources required to maintain and update these systems.

On the other hand, it appears that alternative means of warning are not as bulletproof as could be wished. A damaged cellular system or failure of internet service providers could potentially knock out two of the most modern means officials have of warning citizens of impending weather dangers.

Perhaps the best way of viewing warning sirens is that they are an older technology that serves a useful purpose – to act as a backup and final means to warn residents of impending danger.

If residents have access to any other forms of technology, they should have those devices ready to go and be monitoring for severe weather as it approaches their community.

“The best way is through your local media – the radio, the TV stations,” Elliott said. “Also, the NOAA weather radio is a great source [of severe weather information] as well.”

For Sell, the reliability of modern technology and alerts all depends on cellular and internet systems remaining active and functional.

Whatever communities decide to do in regard to warning sirens, there will hopefully always be volunteers like Moehring who will support their communities with their radio sets and their volunteer service.

For more information on NOAA weather radio, please visit the following web link. https://www.weather.gov/nwr/

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The Lifetime Cost of Renewables: Investing Now to Save Later

By Cincade Drudge

From rising fuel prices to worsening climate change, the global energy debate increasingly centers on one key question: Are renewable energy sources truly worth the cost? While wind turbines, solar farms, and battery storage systems often require large upfront investments, experts argue that the long-term economics of renewable energy tell a very different story.

Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power are frequently criticized for their installation costs. However, evaluating energy systems based only on initial construction expenses ignores the broader financial picture. The lifetime cost of energy, which includes installation, operation, maintenance, fuel, and eventual decommissioning, provides a far more accurate measure of economic value.

When viewed through this lens, renewable energy has become one of the most cost-effective forms of electricity generation in the world. Unlike fossil fuels, which rely on finite and often volatile fuel markets, renewable energy sources depend on naturally replenishing resources such as sunlight and wind. Because these resources are free, renewable systems avoid many of the long-term costs associated with coal, oil, and natural gas.

One of the most important tools used to compare energy costs is the levelized cost of energy, or LCOE. LCOE measures the total cost of building and operating an energy source over its lifetime, divided by the amount of electricity it produces. Over the past decade, renewable energy technologies have seen dramatic reductions in LCOE due to technological improvements, increased efficiency, and large-scale production. Solar and wind energy now provide some of the cheapest electricity in much of the world.

Wind energy demonstrates how high upfront costs can translate into long-term savings. Onshore wind farms typically cost between $1.3 and $2.2 million per megawatt to install, while offshore projects can cost significantly more due to difficult ocean construction and maintenance conditions. Despite these high startup costs, wind turbines have relatively low operating expenses once operational. Maintenance, insurance, land rental, and repairs generally average only one to two cents per kilowatt-hour produced.

Wind turbines are designed to operate for roughly 20 to 25 years, and many continue functioning even longer with upgrades and maintenance. Because turbines require no fuel, electricity generation costs remain relatively stable over time. Most wind farms recover their initial capital investments within the first decade or two and continue generating comparatively inexpensive usable electricity afterward. As turbine technology continues improving, efficiency gains and lower maintenance demands are expected to further strengthen wind energy’s long-term economic viability.

Solar energy has experienced an even more dramatic decline in costs. Since 2010, the price of solar power has fallen by more than 80 percent, largely due to cheaper photovoltaic panels and advances in manufacturing efficiency. Utility-scale solar farms now cost around $1 million per megawatt to construct, while residential systems average between $15,000 and $25,000 before incentives.

Once installed, solar systems are relatively inexpensive to maintain. Since sunlight is free, operating costs are minimal, averaging only around $10 to $15 per megawatt-hour. Most solar panels last between 25 and 35 years, gradually losing small amounts of efficiency each year rather than suddenly failing. Even after their estimated lifespan, many panels continue producing usable electricity at reduced output levels.

The falling LCOE of solar energy has made it one of the cheapest electricity sources available today. Federal tax credits (current status uncertain), state incentives, and net metering programs have further improved the financial outlook for residential and commercial solar adoption. For many homeowners and businesses, solar panels represent not only an environmental decision but also a long-term economic investment capable of producing decades of reduced energy costs.

Beyond direct financial savings, renewable energy also avoids many of the hidden costs associated with fossil fuels. Coal, oil, and natural gas production contribute heavily to air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and public health problems.

These damages often impose economic burdens on governments and communities through healthcare expenses, environmental cleanup, and disaster recovery costs. Because these external costs are rarely reflected in the market price of fossil fuels, traditional energy sources can appear cheaper than they truly are. When these factors are included, renewable energy becomes even more economically advantageous.

Despite the promising economics of renewables, challenges and costs remain. Wind and solar generation are intermittent, meaning electricity production depends on weather conditions and time of day. To ensure reliable power delivery, renewable systems often require battery storage, backup generation, or modernized electrical grids capable of distributing energy more efficiently. These infrastructure improvements involve significant investment and remain a major barrier in many regions.

Geography and local policy can also complicate renewable energy expansion. Some areas lack the environmental conditions necessary for efficient renewable production, while others face political resistance or restrictive zoning laws. Policies such as solar setback regulations can limit where renewable projects may be built, slowing the transition toward cleaner energy systems.

Still, the broader trajectory of renewable energy suggests continued growth. Technological improvements in battery storage, grid efficiency, and manufacturing are steadily reducing costs while improving reliability. As economies of scale continue expanding, many analysts expect renewable energy to become even more financially competitive in the coming decades.

Individuals also play a role in shaping the future of renewable energy. Supporting community solar projects, advocating for clean energy policies, and investing in residential renewable systems when financially possible can help accelerate the transition away from fossil fuels. Public awareness and political engagement will likely play a major role in determining how quickly renewable infrastructure expands.

Ultimately, the debate over renewable energy is no longer simply about environmental responsibility. Increasingly, it is about long-term economic sustainability. While renewable systems often require significant upfront investment, their low operating costs, stable energy production, and reduced environmental impacts make them one of the strongest long-term energy investments available today. The question is no longer whether renewable energy is affordable over its lifetime, but whether societies are willing to invest in the future now rather than pay far greater costs later.

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When the Climate Changes the Cost of Living: How Rising Temperatures Are Driving Up Food Prices

By Cincade Drudge

Climate change is often discussed in terms of melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and extreme weather. But for many Americans, especially here in Indiana, one of the most immediate and tangible effects shows up in a much more familiar place: the grocery store. As global temperatures rise and weather patterns grow more unpredictable, the cost of producing food is increasing, and those costs are steadily being passed on to consumers.

At its core, climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns, largely driven by human activities such as burning fossil fuels. While these shifts may seem gradual, their effects on agriculture are anything but subtle. Farming depends heavily on stable weather conditions, and even small disruptions in temperature or rainfall can significantly impact crop yields. As these disruptions become more frequent, the stability of the food supply is increasingly at risk.

One of the clearest ways climate change affects food prices is through extreme weather. Droughts, floods, and heatwaves can damage crops or wipe out entire harvests. A drought, for example, can severely reduce corn production, while excessive rainfall can delay planting or flood fields before crops have a chance to grow. When supply drops but demand remains steady, prices rise. This basic economic principle is now playing out more frequently due to climate-related disruptions.

Indiana Corn Corp Sourced From MyHomeIndiana.com

However, the issue extends beyond just crop loss. Farmers are also facing rising production costs as they attempt to adapt to changing conditions. More frequent droughts mean greater reliance on irrigation systems, while unpredictable weather increases the need for fertilizers, pest control, and crop insurance. Each of these adjustments adds to the overall cost of farming. These expenses do not stay on the farm; they move through the supply chain and ultimately show up in the prices consumers pay for food.

Transportation and distribution systems are also vulnerable. Flooded roads, damaged infrastructure, and disrupted supply chains can delay the movement of goods, increasing costs for producers and retailers alike. Because the modern food system is highly interconnected, disruptions in one region can ripple across the country. A drought in a major agricultural region, whether in the United States or abroad, can influence global prices, which in turn affect local grocery bills in Indiana.

In a state like Indiana, these challenges carry particular weight. Agriculture is a central part of the state’s economy, generating over $31 billion in annual sales. Crops such as corn and soybeans dominate production, but they are also especially sensitive to weather conditions. Warmer temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns have already made growing seasons less predictable. A hot, dry summer can significantly reduce yields, while excessive spring rain can delay planting and shorten the overall growing period.

Research suggests that these trends could worsen in the coming decades. Some studies indicate that corn yields could be cut in half under higher global temperature scenarios expected within this century. Even under more moderate warming levels, such as those targeted by international agreements, yields could still decline by nearly 20 percent. For Indiana farmers, this represents not just an environmental challenge, but an economic one with direct consequences for income stability and long-term planning.

Livestock producers are also feeling the effects. Higher temperatures place stress on animals, reducing productivity and increasing the need for cooling systems and additional feed. These changes drive up the cost of producing meat and dairy products, which again translates to higher prices for consumers.

While rising food prices affect everyone, they do not affect everyone equally. Low-income households are particularly vulnerable because they spend a larger share of their income on food. Even modest price increases can place significant strain on household budgets. Rural communities face a unique double impact, as many residents are both consumers and participants in the agricultural economy. Farmers themselves face increased financial risk, balancing the possibility of higher prices with the reality of more unpredictable and costly production conditions.

Despite these challenges, there are pathways forward. One important approach is the development of climate-resilient agriculture. This includes planting drought-resistant crops, improving soil health, and using more efficient irrigation systems. These strategies can help stabilize production even as environmental conditions change.

Strengthening local food systems is another potential solution. By relying more on locally produced food, communities can reduce their exposure to global supply chain disruptions. Policy also plays a crucial role. Government support for agricultural research, infrastructure improvements, and financial assistance for farmers adapting to climate change can help mitigate some of the economic pressures.

We, as consumers, too, have a role to play. Reducing food waste and supporting sustainable farming practices can contribute to a more resilient system. While individual actions alone will not solve the problem, they are part of a broader effort to create stability in the face of uncertainty.

Ultimately, however, the most effective way to address rising food prices linked to climate change is to confront climate change itself. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and slowing the pace of global warming are essential to preventing further disruptions to the food system. Without broader action, the trends already being observed are likely to intensify.

For Hoosiers, climate change is no longer a distant or abstract issue. It is becoming an economic reality that affects everyday life. As grocery bills continue to rise, the connection between environmental change and personal cost is becoming harder to ignore. What was once seen primarily as an environmental concern is increasingly understood as a direct challenge to economic stability and food security, both in Indiana and beyond.

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Jacob Kaufman and ‘Heart of Iris’ Debut Concept Album at PFW

By Elijah Noggle, SCO Cultural Critic

Kaufman and his band will bring the album to life in a full live performance on Thursday, April 9 at 7 p.m. in Neff Hall Room 101.

Recently, I sat down to speak with Jacob Kaufman, a performance and songwriting major at PFW and a talented, passionate musician with some unique influences. Kaufman and his band, Heart of Iris, have been hard at work on their ambitious debut album, which was recently released on streaming platforms. The band will perform the album live in its entirety Thursday, April 9 at 7 p.m. in Neff Hall Room 101.

This self-titled concept album is a passion project for Kaufman. When asked about his musical influences, he said that while he does pull from aspects of art rock and progressive rock, the vast majority of his inspiration actually comes from films and novels – particularly horror. He cited the works of the great Stephen King and H.P Lovecraft, to be more specific. He’s a massive fan of cosmic horror, which heavily informs the album’s themes.

Cosmic horror, Kaufman explained, is “the fear of the unknown or the unknowable, or in other words, it’s the thinking man’s horror.” The music is a very diverse and unique blend of all of these influences. “It utilizes elements of art rock, but I wanted to go for an entirely unique sound in itself,”  Kaufman said.

Kaufman also discussed his philosophy on strong songwriting. He spoke about how what can really elevate a song’s quality is when the music matches up with the lyrics. He compared his approach to an acoustic performance, which I thought was really interesting.

“If you go to an acoustic show, you’re there to listen to the storytelling – the acoustic guitar is just there to help move the story forward but it’s just a chord progression,” Kaufman said. That was essentially how he approached this album creatively. “When I wrote this album, the goal was to make the music that you hear just as important as the lyrics that you listen to and then also they ebb and flow and work in tandem with each other,” he said.

Because it is a concept album, this dynamic between the lyrics and the instrumentation really complements the story, and helps to more effectively communicate the story and what the characters are experiencing.

Kaufman and I also spoke about his extensive musical background prior to his journey here at PFW and making this album. To Jacob, experience is everything – a sentiment I think a lot of us, regardless of the field we are in, can relate to. With more than 1,000 performances in his career, he explained how that helped him develop as an artist and as a performer.

“Taking those opportunities, taking the risk, and getting the experience is what turns you into a great musician,” Kaufman said. “It makes future endeavors easier and better.”

From a marketing perspective, Kaufman emphasized his goal of accessibility. “Prog rock in general can get a little crazy and technical, and I wanted to write something that was both musically interesting, and at the same time digestible for the masses,” he said. “I would like to see more interesting music on the radio – I think a lot of us would.”

I really liked this sentiment because Jacob’s music balances complexity with catchy, melodic songwriting in a way that is very accessible. And I too would really love to see a wider variety of music on the radio, or in other words, a prioritization of music that was made for the love of the craft rather than popularity.

Kaufman is a highly skilled musician, and learning about his creative process was a very enjoyable experience. This was a really fascinating interview to do. It offered an in-depth look at his artistic vision, and audiences can experience it firsthand when Heart of Iris performs April 9.

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Climate Policy in a Divided Nation: Why States Take Different Paths

By Cincade Drudge

Climate change policy in the United States is anything but consistent. Our policies can be described as fragmented and contradictory, with no real uniform policies linking all the states. This lack of connection is not an accident. It reflects a deeper reality for the United States: while the federal government sets broad environmental standards (or chooses not to set standards), much of the authority over energy, infrastructure, and regulation lies with the states. The result is a country where climate policy is shaped as much by geography and economics as it is by politics.

At the center of this divide is the all too familiar distinction of “red” and “blue” states. These labels, while imperfect and reductive, point to broader governing ideas that influence how states approach climate change. Some states prioritize rapid emissions reductions and regulatory action, while others focus on economic stability, energy independence, and market–driven solutions. Neither approach exists in a vacuum, and both are shaped by the practical realities each state faces.

“Red, Blue, and Purple” States by Control of State Legislatures. Sourced from CenterForPolitics.org

Of course, as the labels of red and blue would suggest, one of the most significant drivers of these policy differences is political ideology. Over the past several decades, national party platforms have increasingly influenced state-level policy decisions. Democratic leadership has generally supported emissions targets, renewable energy mandates, and participation in climate agreements. Republican leadership has often emphasized skepticism toward regulation, opposition to carbon taxes, and support for domestic energy production.

Public opinion tends to mirror this divide. Surveys consistently show that concern about climate change and support for government intervention vary widely across regions. In some areas, climate change is framed primarily as an environmental and public health issue. In others, it is discussed more as an economic or regulatory question. These differences in framing shape not only policy outcomes, but also the political feasibility of certain solutions.

Needless to say, state economics also plays a decisive role. States that rely heavily on fossil fuel production face a different set of incentives than those with more diversified economies. In energy-producing states like Texas and West Virginia, policies that restrict oil, natural gas, or coal can carry immediate consequences for jobs and tax revenue, which will affect local communities in these areas. By contrast, states with less dependence on these industries may find it easier to adopt aggressive emissions targets or transition toward renewable energy.

State Government Fossil Fuel Revenue. Sourced from Resources for the Future

Even within this divide, the picture is more nuanced than it first appears. Texas, often categorized as a red state, leads the nation in wind energy production. This growth has been driven less by climate-focused mandates and more by favorable geography, existing infrastructure, and market incentives. It serves as a reminder that positive climate outcomes, like expanding renewable energy, can emerge from very different motivations than expected.

Demographic factors further shape how climate policy is experienced and debated. States with large urban populations often face visible environmental challenges such as air pollution, heat islands, and flooding. These conditions can make climate action feel immediate and tangible. In more rural states, concerns may focus on energy costs, agricultural impacts, and land use. It should be noted, though, that some policies, like those perceived to increase fuel or electricity prices, can face almost universally strong resistance, regardless of their environmental intent.

At the core of these differences is a divide over the role of government in addressing climate change. Some states favor regulatory approaches, such as mandating emissions reductions, setting renewable energy standards, and adopting legally binding climate goals. While others emphasize limited intervention, focusing on voluntary action, innovation, and market-driven solutions.

These contrasting philosophies are reflected in areas like transportation policy, where some states are phasing out gasoline–powered vehicles while others resist mandates but still support electric vehicle production for economic reasons. These approaches often extend into the legal system, where states challenge federal climate policies as either too aggressive or too weak, contributing to ongoing uncertainty and shifting policy direction.

However, at the end of the day, we will all feel the effects of climate action or the lack thereof. Some may experience higher upfront costs associated with transitioning to cleaner energy systems, alongside long-term environmental and public health benefits. Others may benefit from lower regulatory burdens and stronger ties to traditional energy industries, while facing a slower shift toward renewable energy and more potential for future climate ramifications.

At the same time, the impacts of climate change itself do not follow political boundaries. Extreme weather, shifting growing seasons, flooding, and heat waves affect communities across the country, regardless of how their states approach policy. This shared vulnerability exists alongside deeply different strategies for addressing it.

Climate change will ultimately affect all communities, regardless of how policy is divided today. While state-by-state approaches may seem workable in the short term, the long–term consequences of inaction will extend across the entire country. The United States may not yet be politically aligned for a unified national response, with a government largely against climate action, but the need for broader dialogue is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore. Climate policy is not a simple binary choice; it reflects a complex balance of economic priorities, political beliefs, and regional realities. As pressures from climate impacts grow, the push for a more coordinated and forward-looking approach will only become more urgent.

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Climate Change Tipping Points: When Gradual Warming Becomes Irreversible

Climate change is often discussed as a steady rise in global temperatures, tenths of a degree here, incremental carbon emissions there. But the more urgent concern among scientists is not just gradual warming. It is the risk of crossing crucial tipping points: critical thresholds in Earth’s climate system where small increases in temperature can trigger abrupt, self-reinforcing, and potentially irreversible change. 

A tipping point occurs when a climate system shifts from a stable existence into rapid transformation. Once crossed, feedback loops amplify the damage, making it difficult—or in some cases impossible—to reverse, even if temperatures later stabilize. 

These tipping elements exist across the planet: in ice sheets, forests, permafrost, coral reefs, and ocean circulation systems. Scientists warn that several of them are already under stress as global temperatures rise more than 1.1°C above pre-industrial levels. Crossing 1.5°C to 2°C could push multiple systems beyond their limits. 

One of the clearest and most immediate examples is coral reef collapse. 

Healthy Coral Reef (Left) versus Bleached Coral Reef (Right).
Left photo by Gary Bell / Oceanwideimages.com. Right photo by Greenpeace / Roger Grace.

Coral reefs are extraordinarily sensitive to temperature. A sustained increase of just 1–2°C can trigger coral bleaching, a process in which corals expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) that provide them with food and color. Without these algae, corals lose both their vibrant appearance and their primary energy source. 

The world has already experienced multiple global bleaching events, including severe episodes in 1998, 2010, and 2016–2017. In 2016 alone, approximately 29% of coral in the northern section of the Great Barrier Reef died in a single year due to extreme marine heat. 

Bleaching becomes a tipping point when it happens too frequently. If reefs do not have time to recover between heat events, they shift from vibrant, biodiverse ecosystems into algae-dominated rubble. Once that shift occurs, erosion accelerates, fish populations decline, and water quality worsens. Even if ocean temperatures later stabilize, the ecological structure needed for recovery may be gone. 

This matters far beyond marine biology. Coral reefs support roughly a quarter of all ocean species and provide food security, tourism revenue, and coastal protection for more than 500 million people worldwide. Their collapse would represent not just an ecological tipping point, but a social and economic one. 

Coral reefs are not alone in facing dangerous thresholds. 

The Amazon Rainforest presents another looming tipping element. Often called the “lungs of the Earth,” the Amazon plays a crucial role in carbon storage and rainfall regulation. But deforestation, drought, and climate change are pushing it toward a savanna-like state. 

Roughly 17% of the forest has already been lost. Scientists estimate that crossing a 20–25% deforestation threshold could trigger widespread dieback, as the rainforest would no longer generate enough moisture to sustain itself. Such a shift would release vast amounts of stored carbon, intensify regional drought, and disrupt global climate systems. 

Communities living in the Amazon are already experiencing longer dry seasons and more frequent wildfires. The tipping point is not theoretical—it is unfolding in real time. 

The Atlantic Ocean contains yet another tipping element: the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This vast system of currents acts like a global conveyor belt, moving warm water northward and cold water southward. It plays a critical role in regulating the climate, particularly in Europe. 

Visual representation of the AMOC (Illustration by Eric S. Taylor, © Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)

Freshwater from melting Greenland ice disrupts the salinity balance that drives this circulation. Evidence suggests the AMOC has weakened by roughly 15% over the past half-century. Continued slowdown could dramatically alter weather patterns, disrupt food systems, and intensify regional climate extremes. 

Each of these tipping points is different. But they share a common feature: once these negative feedback loops take hold, change accelerates. 

Yet these systems are not beyond influence. The difference between 1.5°C and 2°C of warming may determine whether coral reefs survive in reduced form or largely vanish. It may shape whether ice sheet melt accelerates gradually or crosses into a runaway decline. 

Reducing global greenhouse gas emissions remains the most critical action. Limiting warming slows feedback loops before they spin out of control. This, of course, faces limitations as our government has recently limited its ability to regulate emissions.  

Local and regional measures matter as well. Marine Protected Areas can strengthen coral resilience by reducing overfishing and pollution. Coral restoration efforts—nurseries, selective breeding for heat tolerance, assisted gene flow—are being tested. Improving water quality reduces stress on reef systems. Early warning systems allow faster response to marine heatwaves. 

The concept of tipping points can feel overwhelming. The language of it all: irreversible, collapse, runaway, all suggest inevitability. 

But tipping points are thresholds, not set-in-stone prophecies. 

The climate system responds to actions, not despair. Slowing warming slows negative climate feedback. Stabilizing temperatures stabilizes systems. Action taken before thresholds are crossed carries far greater impact than action delayed. 

The lesson of climate tipping points is not that collapse is certain. It is that timing matters. The window for avoiding the most destabilizing shifts is narrower than it once was, but it remains open for now.  

Whether these systems cross their thresholds depends on decisions made in the present, not centuries from now. 

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PFW Graduate Students Lead Wildlife Conservation Efforts in Indiana

By Andrew Danielson / Photos by Lauren Lee and Justin Moore

A species of ground squirrels. A unique camera trap with motion-activated cameras. And the states of California and Rhode Island.

As it turns out, all those items have a lot in common, particularly when it comes to the wildlife biology laboratory of Dr. Scott Bergeson, associate professor of animal biology at Purdue University Fort Wayne in the department of biological sciences.

For over a year, two of Bergeson’s graduate students, Justin Moore, originally from Rhode Island, and Lauren Lee, who hails from California, have been working on separate but complementary research projects focusing on wildlife conservation and management.

Lee, who received her undergraduate degree in biology from the University of California, Santa Barbara, is working on a project to survey and identify the variety of small mammal species that exist throughout Indiana.

“The goal is to survey the entire state for small mammals,” Lee said.  

Lee’s mentor, Bergeson, explained that the last time a survey of small mammals in Indiana was completed was around 2007. That means that wildlife conservation officials such as those at the Indiana Department of Natural Resources have no fresh statistics on the health and population figures for small mammals.

Mammals are good indicators of the health of a particular ecosystem. If there is a diverse population of mammals in the area, that ecosystem is probably healthy.

“All of these small mammals and all of the other things help maintain the health of these natural spaces,” Bergeson said. “Even our agriculture would suffer if we didn’t have the natural spaces that help filter the pollutants that would otherwise get into our crops. Everything is connected.”  

Smile – You’re on Camera

Lauren Lee and one of her technicians, CJ Klopfenstein, inspect one of the cameras used in the project
Graduate student Lauren Lee

Lee’s project, which is funded by a $150k grant from the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, is ambitious to say the least. If she were to use traditional trapping methods to conduct her survey, as was done in the 1960s, her project would take many years to complete.

But Lee and Bergeson have a solution: camera technology and upside-down buckets.

Lee explained that she installs “camera traps” on publicly-owned property, at least 100 meters away from any trail or road.

Each camera trap consists of a temporary “wall” made of a plastic material that leads to overturned buckets. An upside-down bucket with entrance holes cut into the bottom houses the actual camera.

The traps don’t use any bait, relying instead on animals’ natural curiosity or scent. When an animal approaches the trap, the “wall” barrier naturally guides them to the hole in the bucket. Once the animal walks into the bucket, their photo is snapped.

The cameras are infrared-equipped and motion activated, so there’s no bright flashes when the camera snaps photos. The lenses used on the camera are designed to provide close-up, magnified views of the animals, providing easier identification of the small furry visitors.

Long-tailed weasel
Southern flying squirrel
Juvenile Virginia Opossum

Lee explained that she currently has 102 camera trap sites, spread across the entire state. To collect the photos taken from her cameras, she has to drive to each site, swap out SD cards in the cameras, and perform maintenance on the site as needed.

From those sites, Lee has collected 1.5 million photos, with hundreds of thousands of photo sequences.

To help collect and process all of that information, Lee is being assisted by two undergraduate technicians and an artificial intelligence software. The AI automatically sorts through the sequences of photos and provides Lee with some basic species identification. She then checks what the artificial intelligence has done, making sure that the identifications are accurate.

“So, the whole idea is that we have this huge database of photos from everywhere and then for the next 100 years we can start mining that data to figure out other sorts of things,” Bergeson said.

A Squirrel’s View on Indiana

Yet another of Bergeson’s graduate students, Justin Moore, is also undertaking an ambitious wildlife conservation project with the assistance of two undergraduate technicians.

Moore, who received his undergraduate degree in wildlife conservation from the University of Rhode Island, is working to help stabilize a population of ground squirrels here in Indiana, called the Franklin’s ground squirrel.

Moore explained that ground squirrels are similar to tree squirrels, but they’re actually separate species with different diets, preferred habitat, and behavior.

According to Moore, Franklin’s used to have a fairly wide range in Indiana. However, due to the loss of prairies across the state, the ground squirrel’s preferred habitat, that population has shrunk to just one natural population in the region.

Franklin’s ground squirrel leaves its burrow in a hay bale

“They are state endangered in Indiana, and they’re declining across most of the Midwest,” Moore said.

Moore’e project, which is also fully funded by a roughly $200k grant from the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, is to help stabilize the Franklin’s population by re-locating healthy specimens from other states to Indiana. His project is a pilot study, so the techniques he is using will help in future re-location projects of either Franklin’s or other small animals that are endangered.

How to Move a Squirrel: Carefully!

Moore explained that, together with his mentor Bergeson, they identified a strong, healthy population of Franklin’s in South Dakota. Moore and Bergeson quickly formed an agreement between wildlife conservation officials in South Dakota and Indiana, enabling them to bring Franklin’s from South Dakota back here to Indiana.

But moving squirrels is no easy task.

“There’s a lot that goes into the trapping to make sure that the squirrels and we [the researchers] are safe,” Moore said.

Handling of a baby Franklin’s ground squirrel
Justin Moore holds a Franklin’s ground squirrel

The capture sites for the squirrels in South Dakota are designed to minimize stress and discomfort to the animals, including routine checks on the traps and special coverings to provide shade to captured animals in the traps.

Researchers receive rabies vaccines before interacting with the animals, and all captured animals are initially handled through special handling cones that keep the squirrels calm and unable to bite the researchers.

Once the animals have been captured, they undergo a thorough process of medical checkups, including treatments for any diseases spread by ticks or lice. A veterinarian check-up and a full 21-day quarantine period are also rigorously followed to ensure that diseased animals are not brought into Indiana.

Once Moore brings the squirrels to Indiana, he releases them into what are called “soft release” enclosures, allowing the newly translocated squirrels to get used to their new habitat before being fully released into their Indiana home.

Moore is assisted by technician CJ Klopfenstein as they collar a Franklin’s ground squirrel

To keep tabs on the squirrel population and its well-being, Moore uses small radio transmitters attached to the Franklin’s that allow him to track their movements using a small receiver and antenna.

The new Franklin’s ground squirrels being brought to Indiana are being released in Newton County on property owned by The Nature Conservancy, a non-profit group that advocates for wildlife conservation.

PFW Biology Students Having National Impact with Research

Both of these research projects are forging new ground in the world of wildlife conservation.

Dr. Bergeson said that Lee’s project has already resulted in a research protocol that is now being shared among various states engaged in wildlife research. That protocol, coupled together with her unique use of artificial intelligence, will provide other researchers with tools and techniques needed in today’s field of wildlife conservation.

Moore’s project is also making inroads into the field of wildlife conservation.

As he talked about his project, Moore said that the project will hopefully result in Franklin’s populations stabilizing. That means the population will, one day, grow strong enough to be removed from the state endangered classification.

And these projects are already paying dividends for their researchers, as Moore, Lee, and their technicians, all gain conservation experience from their projects.  

“I feel like any new experience with any kind of wildlife is really, really cool,” Lee said.

Moore agrees with that view.

“I couldn’t imagine doing anything else,” he summarized.

It’s a win-win situation for Lee, Moore, and their two undergraduate research technicians who assist them with their projects. They all gain valuable research experience and the opportunities to do future projects or write and publish their findings in research journals.

For the undergraduate technicians, the field research training they are gaining will help them strengthen their potential future applications to graduate school.

But perhaps the greatest benefit these projects are providing is the effect they have on wildlife conservation.

Bergeson said that projects like Lee’s camera traps and Moore’s squirrel translocations are having valuable impacts on Indiana’s conservation efforts.

“Our lab has actual impacts on that, which is super cool,” Bergeson said.  

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